[195] Conscripted soldiers underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. [87] After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. It was regarded in Chinese history as the golden age of arts, politics, and technology; a time when Confucianism was promoted as the state religion which has been in effect until now. [116] Under certain conditions dictated by custom, not law, both men and women were able to divorce their spouses and remarry. To elevate himself above the Shang and Zhou kings of old, he accepted the new title of emperor (皇帝 huangdi) and is known to posterity as the First Emperor of Qin (Qin Shi Huang). [193], Up until the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, the Emperors of the Han had great difficulty bringing the vassal kings under control, as kings often switched their allegiance to the Xiongnu Chanyu whenever threatened by Imperial attempts to centralize power. [307] Later, during the Northern Wei (386–534), the fully developed horse collar was invented. The longest reigning emperor of the dynasty was Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), or Wudi, who reigned for 54 years. - The need for new leaders highlighted the importance of self-promotion. [248] The ruins of rammed-earth walls that once surrounded the capitals Chang'an and Luoyang still stand, along with their drainage systems of brick arches, ditches, and ceramic water pipes. For the Five Dynasties-era kingdom, see, Left image: Western-Han painted ceramic jar garnished with raised, Private manufacture and government monopolies, Science and technology during the Han period, Science and technology of the Han dynasty, Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven, Traditional Chinese medicine § Han dynasty, Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires, "Les pays d'Occident d'après le Heou Han chou", "Chinese lead ingots with barbarous Greek inscriptions", Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World, Han dynasty by Minnesota State University, Han dynasty art with video commentary, Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Early Imperial China: A Working Collection of Resources, "Han Culture," Hanyangling Museum Website, Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals, Essential Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet, The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Han_dynasty&oldid=1003660060, States and territories established in the 3rd century BC, States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing Chinese-language text, Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text, Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. [212], The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords. [244] Ceramic architectural models of buildings, like houses and towers, were found in Han tombs, perhaps to provide lodging for the dead in the afterlife. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye Chanyu (r. 58–31 BC) finally submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, after the collapse of the Qin dynasty the hegemon Xiang Yu appointed Liu Bang as prince of the small fief of Hanzhong, named after its location on the Han River (in modern southwest Shaanxi). The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. Regiments were divided into companies and led by Captains. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. [59], Foreign travelers to Eastern-Han China include Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese, such as An Shigao from Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara, India. [17], In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi province, where they defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC. [8] Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu (d. 202 BC) of Chu and Liu Bang (d. 195 BC) of Han, engaged in a war to decide who would become hegemon of China, which had fissured into 18 kingdoms, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang. [85] Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militia forces and used these troops to amass power outside of the collapsing imperial authority.[86]. They also thought that the illumination of the Moon and planets was caused by sunlight, that lunar eclipses occurred when the Earth obstructed sunlight falling onto the Moon, and that a solar eclipse occurred when the Moon obstructed sunlight from reaching the Earth. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50, 52 and de Crespigny (2007), 511–517. At the beginning of the Western Han (traditional Chinese: 西漢; simplified Chinese: 西汉; pinyin: Xīhàn), also known as the Former Han (traditional Chinese: 前漢; simplified Chinese: 前汉; pinyin: Qiánhàn) dynasty, thirteen centrally controlled commanderies—including the capital region—existed in the western third of the empire, while the eastern two-thirds were divided into ten semi-autonomous kingdoms. [2] The Han dynasty was reestablished by Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD) or Guangwu Di, who claimed the throne on 5 August 25 AD. [160] Liu Ying (d. 71 CE), a half-brother to Emperor Ming of Han (r. 57–75 CE), was one of its earliest Chinese adherents, although Chinese Buddhism at this point was heavily associated with Huang-Lao Daoism. [41], The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the Red Eyebrows to survive. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912 AD. It does not list leaders from the ancestral family line, Western Han, or Shu Han. 2 . [209] The poll tax stimulated a money economy that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000 coins from 118 BC to 5 AD, an average of 220,000,000 coins a year. The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Its followers believed that the sage-philosopher Laozi (fl. [140] While suspects were jailed, convicted criminals were never imprisoned. [19], Despite the tribute and a negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu (r. 174–160 BC) and Emperor Wen (r. 180–157 BC) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu's Xiongnu subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods. [38], When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying (d. 25 AD) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child. [73], When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An (r. 106–125 AD) was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run (李閏) and Jiang Jing (江京) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. [170], Ranked below the Three Councillors of State were the Nine Ministers (Jiu qing 九卿), who each headed a specialized ministry. [200] The latter were known as buqu 部曲, a special social class in Chinese history. [21], However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han. [305], Although ox-carts and chariots were previously used in China, the wheelbarrow was first used in Han China in the 1st century BC. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 28, 31. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them and forced many to commit suicide. [279] This device was able to detect the exact cardinal or ordinal direction of earthquakes from hundreds of kilometers away. However, when his title was changed to Minister of Works in 8 BC, his chief duty became oversight of public works projects. There were many Han emperors; the Eastern Han Dynasty lasted some 200 years and the Western Han Dynasty lasted another some 200 years.Western Han Dynasty:Liu BangEastern Han … He placecd his capital in Chang'an. In the history books, this period was called the Western Han Dynasty. [21] Emperor Wu changed the era name once more when he established the 'Great Beginning' (太初 Taichu) calendar in 104 BC. Following Liu Bang's victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. [31], From roughly 115 to 60 BC, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. He abolished all academic chairs or erudites (bóshì 博士) not dealing with the Confucian Five Classics in 136 BCE and encouraged nominees for office to receive a Confucian-based education at the Imperial University that he established in 124 BCE. [68] Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city "Cattigara" described by Ptolemy in his Geography (c. 150 AD) as lying east of the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang. [3], To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu nationalized several private industries. However, he implemented very strict legalist policies and made that a part of the political infrastructure. [296] They assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets were spherical and not disc-shaped. [33] In China's first known nationwide census taken in 2 AD, the population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households. [94], Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. [77] Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis. Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes-disinterested Confucian scholars who generally considered scientific and engineering endeavors to be far beneath them. [24], After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to prevail against the Xiongnu. Wealthy folk could afford silk robes, skirts, socks, and mittens, coats made of badger or fox fur, duck plumes, and slippers with inlaid leather, pearls, and silk lining. [268] The odometer cart, invented during Han, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance traveled. The distillation furnaces were heated by natural gas funneled to the surface through bamboo pipelines. [154] It was believed that the three realms of Heaven, Earth, and Mankind were linked by natural cycles of yin and yang and the five phases. These calipers contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were manufactured. [220], Liquor was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. [28] The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired laborers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier. [51], During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in Gansu. [185], A governor could take various actions without permission from the imperial court. [228] The standard papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun (AD 50–121) in 105. [199] When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops. – A.D. 220, Chinese History - Han Dynasty 漢 (206 BC-8 AD, 25–220) emperors and rulers, from Chinaknowledge.de, Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals, Essential Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet, The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Han_dynasty&oldid=1001606507, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Beck, Mansvelt. The Han dynasty was restored after his overthrow and his rule marks the separation between the Western Han Dynasty (before Xin) and Eastern Han Dynasty (after Xin). After so much … Die Han-Dynastie (chinesisch 漢朝 / 汉朝, Pinyin hàncháo) regierte das Kaiserreich China von 206 v. Chr. [302], Although the use of the graduated scale and grid reference for maps was not thoroughly described until the published work of Pei Xiu (AD 224–271), there is evidence that in the early 2nd century, cartographer Zhang Heng was the first to use scales and grids for maps. Following the d… [149] Beer and wine were regularly consumed. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 40. Emperor Liu Xiu or Han Guang Wu Di was responsible for reestablishing the Han dynasty and starting the Eastern or later Han dynasty after defeating the Xin dynasty with his army from his relations with the former Han founder Gaozu and wealthy landowners. They were responsible for things that a leader would normally deal with, like laws and tax handling. As observed in Han miniature tomb models, but not in literary sources, the crank handle was used to operate the fans of winnowing machines that separated grain from chaff. In order to remarry, the widow would have to be returned to her family in exchange for a ransom fee. [12] After several insurrections by Han kings—the largest being the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC—the imperial court enacted a series of reforms beginning in 145 BC limiting the size and power of these kingdoms and dividing their former territories into new centrally controlled commanderies. [156], It was believed that immortality could be achieved if one reached the lands of the Queen Mother of the West or Mount Penglai. [187] A Magistrate maintained law and order in his county, registered the populace for taxation, mobilized commoners for annual corvée duties, repaired schools and supervised public works. [257], Underground mine shafts, some reaching depths over 100 metres (330 ft), were created for the extraction of metal ores. Liu Bang assumed the title "emperor" (huangdi) at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC). 1. [181] A county was divided into several districts (xiang 鄉), the latter composed of a group of hamlets (li 里), each containing about a hundred families. [148] Seasonings included sugar, honey, salt, and soy sauce. The administration of each kingdom was very similar to that of the central government. [263] Nevertheless, some Han literary sources provide crucial information. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 588–592. The other is Later Han or Eastern Han, which took place in 25 until 220 AD. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei, where the Han commanders Huo Qubing (d. 117 BC) and Wei Qing (d. 106 BC) forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert. [143] In each Han county was several districts, each overseen by a chief of police. [126] However, the Han court under Emperor Wu gave Confucianism exclusive patronage. Several days later, a messenger arrived bearing news that an earthquake had struck in Longxi Commandery (in modern Gansu Province), the direction the device had indicated, which forced the officials at court to admit the efficacy of Zhang's device. [225], In the 1st millennium BC, typical ancient Chinese writing materials were bronzewares, animal bones, and bamboo slips or wooden boards. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in agricultural colonies until they could recover from their debts. The junk design was developed and realized during the Han era. [172], The Minister of the Guards (Weiwei 衛尉) was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls, towers, and gates of the imperial palaces. Liu also took a … As a result of this commodity, the trade routes became known as the Silk Road or Sichou Zhi Lu. Thus the Han dynasty was able to establish embassies in several countries. Complex, high-profile or unresolved cases were often deferred to the Minister of Justice in the capital or even the emperor. Other agricultural cultivators were of a lower status, such as tenants, wage laborers, and slaves. The 'road' was actually an entire network of overland camel caravan routes connecting China to the Middle East and hence is now often referred to as the Silk Routes by historians. The Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation,[6] defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior and vassal partner for several decades, but continued their military raids on the Han borders. [196], During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. [247], Though Han wooden structures decayed, some Han-dynasty ruins made of brick, stone, and rammed earth remain intact. This also introduced the Han to the interstate networks in the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang), allowing for the expansion of the Han dynasty from a limited regional state to a universalist and cosmopolitan empire through further marriage alliances with another steppe power, the Wusun. Zhang encountered Dayuan (Fergana), Kangju (Sogdiana), and Daxia (Bactria, formerly the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom); he also gathered information on Shendu (Indus River valley of North India) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire). [13] Temple names, first used during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141 BC), were used exclusively in later records and historical texts when referring to emperors who reigned during the Tang (618–907 AD), Song (960–1279 AD), and Yuan (1271–1368 AD) dynasties. After the Hanzhong fief within the Seven States is Former Hand or Western Han conscription. To depose Liang Ji, who served as the Reformists gained greater influence in the.. 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